ISO 16484-6:2024

International
Standard
ISO 16484-6
Fifth edition
Building automation and control
2024-12
systems (BACS) —
Part 6:
Data communication
conformance testing
Systèmes d'automatisation et de gestion technique du
bâtiment —
Partie 6: Essais de conformité de la communication de données
Reference number
© ISO 2024
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Published in Switzerland
ii
CONTENTS
CLAUSE          PAGE
FOREWORD . vi
1. PURPOSE . 1
2. SCOPE . 1
3. DEFINITIONS . 1
3.1 Terms Adopted from International Standardss . 1
3.2 Abbreviations and Acronyms Used in the Standard . 1
3.3 Common language used in tests . 1
4. ELECTRONIC PICS FILE FORMAT . 2
4.1 Character Encoding . 2
4.2 Structure of EPICS Files . 2
4.3 Character Strings . 3
4.4 Notational Rules for Parameter Values . 3
4.5 Sections of the EPICS File . 5
5. EPICS CONSISTENCY TESTS . 10
6. CONVENTIONS FOR SPECIFYING BACnet CONFORMANCE TESTS . 12
6.1 TCSL Components . 12
6.2 TCSL Statements . 13
6.3 Time Dependencies . 18
6.4 BACnet References . 19
6.5 TD Requirements . 19
6.6 Test Execution Considerations . 19
7. OBJECT SUPPORT TESTS . 21
7.1 Read Support for Properties in the Test Database . 21
7.2 Write Support for Properties in the Test Database . 23
7.3 Object Functionality Tests . 29
8. APPLICATION SERVICE INITIATION TESTS . 332
8.1 AcknowledgeAlarm Service Initiation Tests . 332
8.2 ConfirmedCOVNotification Service Initiation Tests . 334
8.3 UnconfirmedCOVNotification Service Initiation Tests . 348
8.4 ConfirmedEventNotification Service Initiation Tests . 352
8.5 UnconfirmedEventNotification Service Initiation Tests . 398
8.6 GetAlarmSummary Service Initiation Tests . 422
8.7 GetEnrollmentSummary Service Initiation Tests . 422
8.8 GetEventInformation Service Initiation Tests . 424
8.9 LifeSafetyOperation Service Initiation Tests . 425
8.10 SubscribeCOV Service Initiation Tests . 426
8.11 SubscribeCOVProperty Service Initiation Tests . 427
8.12 AtomicReadFile Service Initiation Tests . 432
8.13 AtomicWriteFile Service Initiation Tests . 432
8.14 AddListElement Service Initiation Tests . 433
8.15 RemoveListElement Service Initiation Tests . 433
8.16 CreateObject Service Initiation Tests . 434
8.17 DeleteObject Service Initiation Tests . 434
8.18 ReadProperty Service Initiation Tests . 435
8.19 ReadPropertyConditional Service Initiation Tests . 437
8.20 ReadPropertyMultiple Service Initiation Tests. 437
8.21 ReadRange Service Initiation Tests . 440
8.22 WriteProperty Service Initiation Tests . 443
8.23 WritePropertyMultiple Service Initiation Tests . 446
8.24 DeviceCommunicationControl Service Initiation Tests . 448
8.25 ConfirmedPrivateTransfer Service Initiation Test . 449
8.26 UnconfirmedPrivateTransfer Service Initiation Test . 450
8.27 ReinitializeDevice Service Initiation Tests . 450
8.28 ConfirmedTextMessage Service Initiation Tests . 451
8.29 UnconfirmedTextMessage Service Initiation Tests . 452
8.30 TimeSynchronization Service Initiation Tests . 452
8.31 UTCTimeSynchronization Service Initiation Tests . 452
8.32 Who-Has Service Initiation Tests . 453
iii
8.33 I-Have Service Initiation Tests . 454
8.34 Who-Is Service Initiation Tests . 454
8.35 I-Am Service Initiation Tests . 455
8.36 VT-Open Service Initiation Tests . 455
8.37 VT-Close Service Initiation Tests . 456
8.38 VT-Data Service Initiation Tests . 457
8.39 RequestKey Service Initiation Tests . 459
8.40 Authenticate Service Initiation Tests . 459
8.41 WriteGroup Service Initiation Tests . 462
8.42 SubscribeCOVPropertyMultiple Service Initiation Tests . 463
8.43 AuditLogQuery Initiation Tests . 467
9. APPLICATION SERVICE EXECUTION TESTS . 468
9.1 AcknowledgeAlarm Service Execution Tests . 468
9.2 ConfirmedCOVNotification Service Execution Tests . 493
9.3 UnconfirmedCOVNotification Service Execution Tests . 498
9.4 ConfirmedEventNotification Service Execution Tests . 501
9.5 UnconfirmedEventNotification Service Execution Tests . 505
9.6 GetAlarmSummary Service Execution Tests . 507
9.7 GetEnrollmentSummary Service Execution Tests . 508
9.8 GetEventInformation Service Execution Tests. 511
9.9 LifeSafetyOperation Service Execution Test . 513
9.10 SubscribeCOV Service Execution Tests . 517
9.11 SubscribeCOVProperty Service Execution Tests . 527
9.12 AtomicReadFile Service Execution Tests . 538
9.13 AtomicWriteFile Service Execution Tests . 544
9.14 AddListElement Service Execution Tests . 553
9.15 RemoveListElement Service Execution Tests . 556
9.16 CreateObject Service Execution Tests. 557
9.17 DeleteObject Service Execution Tests. 562
9.18 ReadProperty Service Execution Tests . 563
9.19 ReadPropertyConditional Service Execution Tests . 568
9.20 ReadPropertyMultiple Service Execution Tests . 568
9.21 ReadRange Service Execution Tests . 577
9.22 WriteProperty Service Execution Tests . 589
9.23 WritePropertyMultiple Service Execution Tests . 596
9.24 DeviceCommunicationControl Service Execution Test . 611
9.25 ConfirmedPrivateTransfer Service Execution Tests . 618
9.26 UnconfirmedPrivateTransfer Service Execution Tests . 619
9.27 ReinitializeDevice Service Execution Tests . 619
9.28 ConfirmedTextMessage Service Execution Tests . 623
9.29 UnconfirmedTextMessage Service Execution Tests . 624
9.30 TimeSynchronization Service Execution Tests . 625
9.31 UTCTimeSynchronization Service Execution Tests . 625
9.32 Who-Has Service Execution Tests . 626
9.33 Who-Is Service Execution Tests. 633
9.34 VT-Open Service Execution Tests . 636
9.35 VT-Close Service Execution Tests . 637
9.36 VT-Data Service Execution Tests . 639
9.37 RequestKey Service Execution Test . 639
9.38 Authenticate Service Execution Tests . 641
9.39 General Testing of Service Execution . 644
9.40 AuditLogQuery Service Execution Tests . 645
9.41 WriteGroup Tests . 647
9.42 SubscribeCOVPropertyMultiple Service Execution Tests . 651
10. NETWORK LAYER PROTOCOL TESTS . 665
10.1 General Network Layer Tests . 665
10.2 Router Functionality Tests . 666
10.3 Half-Router Functionality Tests . 690
10.4 B/IP PAD Tests . 697
10.5 Initiating Network Layer Messages . 699
10.6 Non-Router Functionality Tests . 700
iv
10.7 Route Binding Tests . 703
10.8 Virtual Routing Functionality Tests . 707
11. LOGICAL LINK LAYER PROTOCOL TESTS . 726
11.1 UI Command and Response . 726
11.2 XID Command and Response . 726
11.3 TEST Command and Response . 727
12. DATA LINK LAYER PROTOCOLS TESTS . 728
12.1 MS/TP State Machine Tests . 728
12.2 PTP State Machine Tests . 786
12.3 BACnet/IP Functionality Tests . 818
12.4 BACnet/IPv6 Functionality Tests . 849
12.5 Secure Connect Functionality Tests . 863
13. SPECIAL FUNCTIONALITY TESTS . 912
13.1 Segmentation . 912
13.2 Time Master . 920
13.3 Character Sets . 925
13.4 Malformed PDUs . 925
13.5 Slave Proxy Tests . 926
13.6 Automatic Network Mapping . 928
13.7 Automatic Device Mapping. 929
13.8 Backup and Restore Procedure Tests . 929
13.9 Application State Machine Tests . 943
13.10 Workstation Scheduling Tests . 943
14. Reporting Test Results . 961
ANNEX A – EXAMPLE EPICS (INFORMATIVE) . 962
HISTORY OF REVISIONS . 977

v
FOREWORD
ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) is a worldwide federation of national standards bodies (ISO
member bodies). The work of preparing International Standards is normally carried out through ISO technical
committees. Each member body interested in a subject for which a technical committee has been established has the right
to be represented on that committee. International organizations, governmental and non-governmental, in liaison with
ISO, also take part in the work. ISO collaborates closely with the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) on
all matters of electrotechnical standardization.
The procedures used to develop this document and those intended for its further maintenance are described in the ISO/IEC
Directives, Part 1. In particular, the different approval criteria needed for the different types of ISO document should be
noted. This document was drafted in accordance with the editorial rules of the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2 (see
www.iso.org/directives).
ISO draws attention to the possibility that the implementation of this document may involve the use of (a) patent(s). ISO
takes no position concerning the evidence, validity or applicability of any claimed patent rights in respect thereof. As of
the date of publication of this document, ISO had not received notice of (a) patent(s) which may be required to implement
this document. However, implementers are cautioned that this may not represent the latest information, which may be
obtained from the patent database available at www.iso.org/patents. ISO shall not be held responsible for identifying any
or all such patent rights.
Any trade name used in this document is information given for the convenience of users and does not constitute an
endorsement.
For an explanation of the voluntary nature of standards, the meaning of ISO specific terms and expressions related to
conformity assessment, as well as information about ISO's adherence to the World Trade Organization (WTO) principles
in the Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT), see www.iso.org/iso/foreword.html.
This document was prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 205, Building environmental design, in collaboration with
the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) Technical Committee CEN/TC 247, Building Automation, Controls
and Building Management, in accordance with the Agreement on technical cooperation between ISO and CEN (Vienna
Agreement) and with the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. (ASHRAE).
This fifth edition cancels and replaces the fourth edition (ISO 16484-6:2020), which has been technically revised.
The main changes are as follows:
— See the detailed list of changes on pages 977 to 981.
Any feedback or questions on this document should be directed to the user’s national standards body. A complete listing
of these bodies can be found at www.iso.org/members.html.

vi
International Standard ISO 16484-6:2024(en)
1. PURPOSE
Building automation and control systems (BACS) —
Part 6:
Data communication conformance testing
1. PURPOSE
To define a standard method for verifying that an implementation of the BACnet protocol provides each capability
claimed in its Protocol Implementation Conformance Statement (PICS) in conformance with the BACnet standard.
2. SCOPE
This standard provides a comprehensive set of procedures for verifying the correct implementation of each capability
claimed on a BACnet PICS including:

(a) support of each claimed BACnet service, either as an initiator, executor, or both,
(b) support of each claimed BACnet object-type, including both required properties and each claimed optional
property,
(c) support of the BACnet network layer protocol,
(d) support of each claimed data link option, and
(e) support of all claimed special functionality.
3. DEFINITIONS
All definitions from ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 135-2020 also apply to this addendum.
3.1 Terms Adopted from International Standardss
local network: the network to which a BACnet device is directly connected.

remote network: a network that is accessible from a BACnet device only by passing through one or more routers.

test database: a database of BACnet functionality and objects created by reading the contents of an EPICS.
3.2 Abbreviations and Acronyms Used in the Standard
BNF Backus-Naur Form syntax
EPICS electronic protocol implementation conformance statement
IUT implementation under test
TCSL testing and conformance scripting language
TD testing device
TPI text protocol information
3.3 Common language used in tests
'any valid value': Any valid value refers to any value of the correct data type and within the vendor's range specified for
the property this is applied to.

'any appropriate password': Any password that meets the Configuration Requirements specified in the test or test
section. Passwords when required by the vendor are required to be no more than 20 characters.

'reset': Some tests require to reset the IUT. Reset includes power cycle via switch, power cycle via loss of power, and
reinitializeDevice WARMSTART. As defined by the BACnet standard, "WARMSTART shall mean to reboot the device
and start over, retaining all data and programs that would normally be retained during a brief power outage."

4. ELECTRONIC PICS FILE FORMAT
4. ELECTRONIC PICS FILE FORMAT
An electronic protocol implementation conformance statement (EPICS) file contains a BACnet protocol implementation
conformance statement expressed in a standardized text form. EPICS files are machine and human readable
representations of the implementation of BACnet objects and services within a given device. EPICS files shall use the
extension ".TPI" (text protocol information) and contain normal editable text lines consisting of text character codes
ending in carriage return/linefeed pairs (X'0D', X'0A').

EPICS files are used by software testing tools to conduct and interpret the results of tests defined in this standard. An
EPICS file shall accompany any device tested according to the procedures of this standard.
4.1 Character Encoding
BACnet provides for a variety of possible character encodings. The character encodings in BACnet fall into three groups:
octet streams, double octet streams and quad octet streams. Octet streams represent characters as single octet values. In
some cases, such as Microsoft DBCS and JIS C 6226, certain octet values signal that the second octet which follows
should be viewed along with the leading octet as a single value, thus extending the range to greater than 256 possible
characters. In contrast, double octet streams view pairs of octets as representing single characters. The ISO 10646 UCS-
2 encoding is an example. The first or leading octet of the pair is the most significant part of the value. Quad octet streams,
such as ISO 10646 UCS-4, treat tuples of four octets at a time as single characters with the first or leading octet being
the most significant.
To accommodate the various encodings that may be used with BACnet device descriptions, EPICS files begin with a
header that serves both to identify the file as an EPICS file, and to identify the particular encoding used. The header
begins with the string "PICS #" where # is replaced by a numeral representing the character set as shown in Table 4-1.

Table 4-1. Character Set Codes
code character set
0 ANSI X3.4
1 Microsoft DBCS
2 JIS C 6226
3 ISO 10646 (UCS-4)
4 ISO 10646 (UCS-2)
5 ISO 8859-1
An octet stream format can be recognized by examining the first eight octets of the EPICS file. Using ANSI X3.4
encoding as an example these eight octets will contain: X'50' X'49' X'43' X'53' X'20' X'30' X'0D' X'0A'. This represents
the text "PICS 0" followed by carriage return and linefeed.

A double octet stream format can be recognized by examining the first 16 octets of the EPICS file. Using ISO 10646
UCS-2 encoding as an example these 16 octets will contain:

X'00' X'50' X'00' X'49' X'00' X'43' X'00' X'53'
X'00' X'20' X'00' X'34' X'00' X'0D' X'00' X'0A'

This represents the text "PICS 4" followed by carriage return and linefeed.

A quad octet stream format can be recognized by examining the first 32 octets of the EPICS file. Using ISO 10646 UCS-
4 as an example these 32 octets will contain:

X'00' X'00' X'00' X'50' X'00' X'00' X'00' X'49'
X'00' X'00' X'00' X'43' X'00' X'00' X'00' X'53'
X'00' X'00' X'00' X'20' X'00' X'00' X'00' X'33'
X'00' X'00' X'00' X'0D' X'00' X'00' X'00' X'0A'

This represents the text "PICS 3" followed by carriage return and linefeed.
4.2 Structure of EPICS Files
EPICS files consist of text lines ending in carriage return/linefeed pairs (X'0D', X'0A') encoded as octet, double octet or
quad octet streams as defined in 4.1. In the rest of this standard, the term "character" will be used to mean one symbol
4. ELECTRONIC PICS FILE FORMAT
encoded as one, two, or four octets based on the character encoding used in the EPICS file header. For example, the
character space may be encoded as X'20' or X'0020' or X'00000020'. In this standard all characters will be shown in their
single octet form.
The special symbol ↵ is used in this Clause to signify the presence of a carriage return/linefeed pair (X'0D0A'). Except
within character strings, the character codes tab (X'09'), space (X'20'), carriage return (X'0D') and linefeed (X'0A') shall
be considered to be white space. Any sequence of 1 or more white space characters shall be equivalent to a single white
space character. Except within a character string, a sequence of two dashes (X'2D') shall signify the beginning of a
comment which shall end with the next carriage return/linefeed pair, i.e., the end of the line upon which the -- appears.
Comments shall be considered to be white space, and may thus be inserted freely.

EPICS files shall have, as their first line following the header, the literal text:
BACnet Protocol Implementation Conformance Statement ↵
This text serves as a signature identifying the EPICS file format.

Lines that define the sections of the EPICS (see 4.5) and the particular implementation data for a given device follow the
signature line.
The EPICS file ends with a line containing the following literal text:
End of BACnet Protocol Implementation Conformance Statement ↵
4.3 Character Strings
The occurrence of a double quote (X'22'), single quote (X'27') or accent grave (X'60') shall signify character strings. For
double quotes, the end of the string shall be signified by the next occurrence of a double quote, or the end of the line. For
single quote or accent grave, the end of the string shall be signified by the next occurrence of a single quote (X'27'), or
the end of the line. Thus strings which need to include a single quote or accent grave as a literal character in the string
shall use the double quote quoting method, while strings which need to include double quote shall use the single quote
or accent grave quoting method.
4.4 Notational Rules for Parameter Values
Within each section, parameters may need to be expressed in one of several forms. The following rules govern the format
for parameters:
(a) key words are case insensitive so that X'41' through X'5A' are equivalent to X'61' through X'7A';
(b) null values are shown by the string "NULL";
(c) Boolean values are shown by the strings "T" or "TRUE" if the value is true, or "F" or "FALSE" if the value is
false;
(d) integer values are shown as strings of digits, possibly with a leading minus (-): 12345 or -111;
(e) real values are shown with a decimal point, which may not be the first or last character: 1.23, 0.02, 1.0 but not
.02;
(f) octet strings are shown as pairs of hex digits enclosed in either single quotes (X'2D') or accent graves (X'60'),
and preceded by the letter "X": X'001122';
(g) character strings are represented as one or more characters enclosed in double, single or accent grave quotes as
defined in 4.3: 'text' or 'text' or "text";
(h) bitstrings are shown as a list, enclosed by curly brackets ({ } or X'7B' and X'7D'), of true and false values:
{T,T,F} or {TRUE, TRUE, FALSE}. When the actual value of a bit does not matter, a question mark is used:
{T,T,?};
(i) enumerated values are represented as named, rather than numeric, values. Enumeration names are case
insensitive so that X'41' through X'5A' are equivalent to X'61' through X'7A'. The underscore (X'5F') and dash
(X'2D') are considered equivalent in enumeration names. Proprietary values are shown as a named text with no
whitespace and ending in a non-negative decimal numeric. Each must start with the word "proprietary":
Object_Type, proprietary-object-type-653;
(j) dates are represented enclosed in parenthesis: (Monday, 24-January-1998). Any "wild card" or unspecified field
is shown by an asterisk (X'2A'): (Monday, *-January-1998). The omission of day of week implies that the day
is unspecified: (24-January-1998);
(k) times are represented as hours, minutes, seconds, hundredths in the format hh:mm:ss.xx: 2:05:44.00,
16:54:59.99. Any "wild card" field is shown by an asterisk (X'2A'): 16:54:*.*;
(l) object identifiers are shown enclosed by parentheses, with commas separating the object type and the instance
number: (analog-input, 56). Proprietary object types replace the object type enumeration with the word
"proprietary" followed by the numeric value of the object type: (proprietary 700,1);
4. ELECTRONIC PICS FILE FORMAT
(m) constructed data items are represented enclosed by curly brackets ({ } or X'7B' and X'7D'), with elements
separated by commas. If an element is itself a constructed value, then that element shall be enclosed in curly
brackets.
4.4.1 Complex Parameter Values
Some parameter values, notably property values for constructed or CHOICE types of encoded values, need to use a more
complex notation to represent their values. This notation is tied to the ASN.1 encoding for those property values and may
appear obscure out of context. These additional rules govern the presentation of those types of parameter values:

(a) values which are a CHOICE of application-tagged values are represented by the value of the chosen item
encoded as described in 4.4;
(b) values which are a CHOICE of context-tagged values are represented by the context tag number enclosed in
square brackets, followed by the representation of the value of the chosen item;
(c) list values (ASN.1 "SEQUENCE OF") are represented enclosed in parenthsis, with the elements of the list
separated by commas. If an element is itself a constructed value, then that element shall be enclosed in curly
brackets;
(d) array values are represented enclosed in curly brackets, with the elements of the array separated by commas. If
an element is itself a constructed value, then that element shall be enclosed in curly brackets.
4.4.2 Specifying Limits on Parameter Values
Some properties may have restrictions on the range or resolution of their values. In order to correctly interpret the results
of tests in which the value of a property is changed using WriteProperty, WritePropertyMultiple, or AddListElement then
read back using ReadProperty or ReadPropertyMultiple, it is necessary to know what these restrictions are. The test
database may contain restriction statements that define these constraints. The permissible restrictions and the datatypes
they apply to are:
(a) minimum - the minimum value for Unsigned, Integer, Real, or Double datatypes. The earliest date for the Date
datatype;
(b) maximum - the maximum value for Unsigned, Integer, Real, or Double datatypes. The latest date for the Date
datatype;
(c) resolution - the minimum guaranteed resolution for Real and Double datatypes. The minimum time resolution
in seconds for the Time datatype;
(d) maximum length string - the maximum length of a CharacterString or OctetString;
(e) maximum length list - the maximum number of elements guaranteed to fit in a list;
(f) maximum length array - the maximum number of elements in an array;
(g) allowed values - a comma-delimited list of supported enumerations for an Enumerated datatype. A comma-
delimited list of object types for properties that reference an external object identifier.

Restriction statements shall be listed within pointed brackets (< and >) following the default value. If there are multiple
restrictions within a single set of angle brackets, then the restrictions shall be separated by a semicolon (;). A restriction
statement consists of the restriction name followed by a colon (:) followed by the restriction value or, where appropriate,
a comma-delimited list of possible values.

Here are some examples of property values with restriction statements as they could appear in the test database.

present-value: 13.4
description: "this is a description"
units: milliamperes
object-property-reference: (analog input, 12)

The Units property is a special case, because changing the units can change the value of the Present_Value property as
well as any restrictions on its value. Therefore, minimum, maximum, and resolution restrictions are only valid for the
default value of the Units property.

It is possible to specify default restrictions for most datatypes as described in 4.5.8. Restriction statements in the test
database override the default restrictions for the individual property that contains the restriction statement.
4. ELECTRONIC PICS FILE FORMAT
4.5 Sections of the EPICS File
Each section of the EPICS file begins with a section name followed by a colon ( : or X'3A'). After the colon is a set of
one or more parameters delimited by a set of curly braces ({ } or X'7B' X'7D').

The following symbols are used as placeholders to indicate the presence of parameter information:
(a) the open box symbol inside quotation marks, "", is used to indicate that a character string parameter shall be
present;
(b) the open box symbol with no quotation marks, , is used to indicate that a parameter with a datatype other than
a character string shall be present;
(c) a question mark, ?, is used in the test database to indicate that the property is present but the value is unknown
because it depends on hardware input or is being changed by an internal algorithm.

An example EPICS file may be found in Annex A.
4.5.1 General Information Sections
These sections provide general information about the BACnet device. The syntax for these sections is shown below.

Vendor Name: ""↵
Product Name: ""↵
Product Model Number: ""↵
Product Description: ""↵
4.5.2 Conformance Sections
These sections provide information about the BACnet functionality that the device claims to support.
4.5.2.1 BIBBs Supported
This section indicates which BIBBs are supported. The syntax is shown below. Each BIBB shall be listed, one per line
between the curly braces. An empty list indicates that no BIBBs are supported.

BIBBs Supported: ↵
{↵
↵
}↵
The BIBBs may be any of those BIBBs described in Annex K. The format in the EPICS shall be to use the short acronym
described in the title for each BIBB. For example: A device which supports 'Data Sharing - ReadProperty - B' should
include 'DS-RP-B' in this section.

For example:
BIBBS Supported: ↵
{↵
DS-RP-B↵
DS-WP-B↵
DS-RPM-B↵
DM-DOB-B↵
DM-DDB-B↵
DM-DDB-A↵
}↵
4.5.3 Application Services Supported
This section indicates which standard application services are supported. The syntax is shown below. Each supported
service shall be listed between curly braces one service per line, followed by the words "Initiate" or "Execute" to indicate
whether the service can be initiated, executed, or both.

BACnet Standard Application Services Supported: ↵
{↵
4. ELECTRONIC PICS FILE FORMAT
 Initiate↵
 Execute↵
 Initiate Execute↵
}
The standard services may be any of the services listed in the Clause 21 production BACnetSer
...